APPENDIX 1: MAKING AND REMAKING THE BALKANS - NATIONALISM, WAR AND GREAT POWER INTERVENTION⁵⁷

Gained from

Lost to

Greece

1830

1821-1829 independence war. 1827 by Treaty of London England, France, Russia support autonomy and defeat Turkish -Egyptian fleet. 1828-1929 Russo-Turkish War leads to 1829 Treaty of Adrianople and 1830 London Conference which recognises and protects a limited Greece consisting of what is today Southern Greece

1864

Ionian Islands ceded by Britain

1881

Thessaly and Arta region of Epirus ceded by Ottoman Empire under pressure from Great Powers

1897

Loses war with Ottoman Empire over union with Crete. Despite displeasure of Great Powers they still guarantee Cretan autonomy

1912-1913

Two Balkan wars increase land area by 70 percent and population from 2.8 to 4.8 million. Gains include Aegean Islands, Salonica, Crete and part of 'Macedonia'. Denied Northern Epirus by Great Power decision to recognise it as part of new Albania

1914-1918

Ruling class splits pro-Entente v pro Central Powers. Allies blockade and attempt landing to support pro-Entente section

1919

Allies reward pro-Entente government with support for Greek troops taking Smyrna (in part to thwart Italian occupation)

1920

Treaty of Sèvres: (i) recognises sovereignty of Aegean islands; (ii) awards most of Western and Eastern Thrace; (iii) awards Smyrna for five years to be followed by referendum. Greece exists as a Greece of 'the two continents and the five seas'

1920-1922

Turkey rejects Treaty of Sèvres. War leads to Greek humiliation and recapture of Smyrna but Britain opposes too great a Turkish victory

Turkey regains Smyrna

1923

Treaty of Lausanne recognises Turkish victory but also limits gains. Leads to huge officially endorsed population Exchange

1940

Italy invades Greece

1940

Greece counter-attacks and pushes into Albania

1941-1945

German invasion leading to tripartite division. German, Italian and Bulgarian occupation

1944-1949

Greek Civil War. Stalin stands by while left defeated by Western supported forces

1947

Dodecanese Islands from Italy

1960

Separate independence for Cyprus in part to forestall union with Greece supported by pro-Greek forces

1974

Failed Greek sponsored coup precipitates Turkish invasion of Cyprus and division of island

Serbia

1804-1813

First Serbian revolt leads to independence backed by Russia in 1807 as part of Russo-Turkish War 1806-1812

1813-1815

Turkish reconquest

1815-1817

Second Serbian revolt leading to autonomy within Ottoman Empire

1830

Treaty of Adrianople (as a result of Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829) further defines autonomy within Ottoman Empire

1876-1878

War with Turkey

1878

Fully Independent Kingdom under Treaty of Berlin

1885

Failed Serbo-Bulgarian War for territory and restoration of local balance of power after Bulgarian union with Eastern Rumelia

1912-1913

Balkan Wars--large territorial gains, including Kosovo

1918

Core of new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (from 1928 Yugoslavia)

1941-1945

German invasion and puppet government sponsored by Axis powers

1991

Independent state following breakup of Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia

1918

Formed as Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes

1919

Loses Fiume to Italy (annexed finally 1924)

Italy

1922

Rappalo Treaty awards Nettuno to Italy

Italy

1941

Conflict in ruling class over whether to support Allies or Axis

1941

Italian, German, Hungarian, Bulgarian division Dalmatia annexed by Italy Puppet Croatian state

1945

Reconstitution of Yugoslavia

1991

Breakup of Yugoslavia

Croatia

Pre-1918

Part of Hungarian part of Austro-Hungarian Empire

1918

Part of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes/Yugoslavia

1941

Following German invasion puppet fascist kingdom

1944-1945

Reintegration into Yugoslavia

1991

Independence

Slovenia

Pre-1918

Part of Austro-Hungarian Empire

1918

Formed from Lower Styria, Carniola and part of Carinthia as part of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes- Yugoslavia

1941-1945

Fascist occupation

1945

Federal republic of Slovenia part of new Yugoslavia. Includes 1918 lands plus parts of Istria, Venezia, Giulia

1991

Independence

Bosnia-Hercegovina

1878

Autonomy within Ottoman Empire but under Austrian administration

1908

Annexed by Austro-Hungarian Empire

1918

Part of Yugoslavia

1945

Federal Republic in new Yugoslavia

1991

Independence

1995

Division under Dayton agreement

Macedonia

Historical concept of a Macedonian land highly controversial

1903

Special province of Ottoman Empire under European powers

1912

As a result of First Balkan War much of land taken by Bulgaria

1913

As a result Second Balkan War redivided Greece, Serbia, Montenegro

1944

Yugoslavia includes 'Macedonia' and recognises language

1991

Independence of ex-Yugoslav version of 'Macedonia'

1994-1995

Blockade by Greece

Montenegro

1878

Independent under Treaty of San Stefano

1910

Kingdom

1912-1913

Balkan Wars--allies first with Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia against Turkey and then in 1913 with Serbia and Greece against Bulgaria, Turkey, Romania

1918

Incorporation into Yugoslavia

1991

Independent

Albania

1913

Created from Ottoman Empire Independent principality under International Control Commission

1914

Invasion by Austria and allies

1917

Italian protectorate

1920

Independent but Italian supervision

1940

Greek counter-attack against Italy leads to invasion

1941

Italian invasion. Part of Greater Italy

1944-1945

Partisan led liberation

Romania

1831-1832

Russia writes Organic Statutes of Wallachia and Moldavia to create autonomous principalities within Ottoman Empire

1848

Revolt suppressed by actions of Russia and Ottoman Empire

1853

Russian occupation of principalities helps precipitate Crimean War

1856

Paris Treaty puts control of two principalities under International Commission. Russian influence weakened

1859

Principalities elect Cuza as joint Prince

1861

Union recognised by Ottoman Sultan

1878

Romanian independence as a result of Russo-Turkish War and Congress of Berlin

1881

Kingdom

1916

Joins First World War on Entente side

1918

Seizes Bessarabia from Russia

1919-1920

Rewarded under Treaties of St Germain, Trianon, Neuilly nearly doubling size by acquisition of land from Hungary (including Transylvania) and Austria plus recognition of seizure of Bessarabia.

1940

Loses Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to Stalin's Russia

1940

Loses Southern Dobrudja under Treaty of Craiova

Russia

1940

Loses part of Transylvania to Hungary under Vienna Award

Bulgaria

1941

Allies with Hitler hoping to regain land

Hungary

1944

Switches to Allied side to maintain position--regains Transylvania

Bessarabia

1812

Taken from Ottoman Empire by Russia

1918

Seized from Russia by Romania

Russia

1940

Seized back by Russia

Romania

1991

Part of independent Moldova following breakup of USSR

Russia

Bulgaria

1878

Under Treaty of San Stefano huge principality dominating Balkans

1878

Within months reduced in size by Treaty of Berlin

1885

Incorporation of Eastern Rumelia

1885

Serbo-Bulgarian War

1908

Independent

1912-1913

First Balkan War--huge gains. Second Balkan war--huge losses

Greece,

1915

Joins First World War on German side

Serbia

1919

Treaty of Neuilly cedes territory to Greece, Romania & Yugoslavia

Greece, Romania,

1940

Gains Dobrudja from Romania under Treaty of Craiova

Yugoslavia

1941-45

Invades Greece and Yugoslavia in support of Germany. Occupies Thrace and 'Macedonia'

1944

Brief war with Russia (September)

1944

Switches sides to attack German forces

Eastern Rumelia

1878

Autonomous province of Ottoman Empire

1885

United with Bulgaria